|
|
скачать PDF
Authors : 1. Jacqueline B. Helfgott,
Professor/Director of the Seattle University Department of Criminal Justice Crime and Justice Research center
Seattle University 2. William S. Parkin,
Ph.D. in criminal justice
Seattle University 3. Christopher Fisher,
Executive Director of Strategy to the Chief of Police
Seattle Police Department
Crisis-flagged Misdemeanors in Seattle: Arrests, Referrals, Charges, and Case Dispositions
Objective: to study the features of misdemeanor arrests, charges, referrals, and case dispositions of behavioral crisis-flagged incidents in the largest city in the US north-west – Seattle.
Methods: the study employs a quasi-experimental design to examine misdemeanor arrests, charges, referrals, and case dispositions of behavioral crisis-flagged incidents to better understand how individuals who are experiencing behavioral crisis are processed through the misdemeanor justice system. A sample of 505 cases of behavioral-crisis flagged incidents in Seattle from 2016-2018 are compared with a matched random sample of 1053 non-crisis cases examining similarities and differences in arrest, referral, charges, and case disposition.
Results: misdemeanor offenses often involve individuals experiencing behavioral crises such as mental illness, drug and alcohol addiction, and homelessness. Little is known about how individuals in behavioral crisis arrested for misdemeanors are processed through the criminal justice system. In 2015, the Seattle Police Department implemented a Crisis Intervention Policy that employed a crisis template enabling systematic identification of incidents flagged by law enforcement as involving “behavioral crisis” to improve data collection and police response to incidents involving individuals in behavioral crisis. Implications for crisis intervention, case processing, and managing individuals who commit misdemeanors while in behavioral crisis are discussed.
Scientific novelty: for the first time, the work substantiated the conclusion that individuals involved in crisis-flagged incidents are arrested at a consistently higher rate; are more likely to be charged, taken into custody, and incarcerated; and are more likely to be female.
Practical significance: the main provisions and conclusions of the article can be used in scientific, pedagogical and law enforcement activities when considering the issues related to prevention and elimination crimes.
Keywords :
Misdemeanor; Crime; Administrative legal procedure; Crisis Intervention Policy; Behavioral crisis; Legal procedure
Bibliography :
1. Natapoff A. Punishment without crime: How our massive misdemeanor system traps the innocent and makes America more unequal, New York, NY, Basic Books, 2018.
2. 2017 crime in the United States, United States Department of Justice, available at: https://ucr.fbi.gov/crime-in-the-u.s/2017/crime- in-the-u.s.-2017/home
3. Helfgott J. B. Criminal behavior: Theories, typologies, and criminal justice. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2008.
4. Natapoff A. Misdemeanors, Southern California Law Review, 2017, No. 85, pp. 1313–1376.
5. Roberts J. Why misdemeanors matter: defining effective advocacy in the lower criminal courts, University of California-Davis Law Review, 2011, No. 45 (2), pp. 277–372.
6. Stevenson M., Mayson, S. The scale of misdemeanor justice, Boston University Law Review, 2018, No. 98 (3), pp. 731–777.
7. Beckett K., Herbert S. Dealing with disorder: Social control in the post-industrial city. Theoretical Criminology, 2008, No.12 (5), pp. 5–30. DOI: 10.1177/1362480607085792
8. Beckett K., Herbert S. Penal boundaries: Banishment and the expansion of punishment, Law & Social Inquiry, 2010, No. 55 (1), pp. 1–38. DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-4469.2009.01176.x
9. Beckett K., Herbert S. Banished: The new social control in urban America, New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2010.
10. Midtveit E. Crime prevention and exclusion: From walls to opera music, Journal of Scandinavian Studies in Criminology and Crime Prevention, 2005, No. 6, pp. 23–38. DOI: 10.1080/14043850510035137
11. Alaraid L. F., Rubin M. Misdemeanor arrestees with mental health needs: Diversion and outpatient services as a recidivism reduction strategy, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 2018, No. 62 (3), pp. 575–590. DOI: 10.1177/0306624X16652892
12. Mack Jr. M. L. Decriminalization of mental illness: Fixing a broken system, 2017, retrieved from Conference of State Court Administrators website: https://cosca.ncsc.org/~/media/Microsites/Files/COSCA/Policy%20Papers/2016-2017-Decriminalizationof-Mental-Illness-Fixing-a-Broken-System.ashx
13. Schug R. A., Fradella H. F. Mental illness and crime, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2015.
14. Harris V., Dagadakis C. Length of incarceration: Was there parity for mentally ill offenders?, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 2004, No. 27 (4), pp. 387–393. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2004.04.001
15. Beck B. Broken windows in the cul-de-sac? Race/ethnicity and quality-of-life policing in the changing suburbs, Crime & Delinquency, 2019, No. 65 (2), pp. 270–292. DOI: 10.1177/0011128717739568
16. Johnson B. D., Golub A., McCabe J. The international implications of quality-of-life policing as practiced in New York City, Public Practice and Research, 2010, No. 11 (1), pp. 17–29. DOI: 10.1080/15614260802586368
17. Katz C. M., Webb V. J., Schaefer D. R. An assessment of the impact of quality-of-life policing on crime and disorder, Justice Quarterly, 2001, No. 18 (4), pp. 825–876. DOI: 10.1080/07418820100095111
18. Vitale A. S. Innovation and institutionalization: Factors in the development of "quality of life" policing in New York City, Policing & Society, 2005, No. 15 (2), pp. 99–124. DOI: 10.1080/10439460500071754
19. Weisburd D. Hot spots of crime and place-based prevention, Criminology & Public Policy, 2018, No. 17 (1), pp. 5–25. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9133.12350
20. Weisburd D., Groff E. R., Yang S. The criminology of place: Street segments and our understanding of the crime problem, Oxford, England, Oxford University Press, 2012.
21. Wilson J. Q., Kelling G. L. Broken windows: The police and neighborhood safety, The Atlantic, 1982, No. 249 (3), pp. 29–38.
22. Golub A., Johnson B. D., Taylor A. Quality of life policing: Do offenders get the message? Policing, 2003, No. 26 (4), pp. 690–707. DOI: 10.1108/13639510310503578
23. Bellafonte G. The dark side of ‘broken windows’ policing, The New York Times, January 16, 2015, available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2015/01/18/nyregion/the-dark-side-of-broken-windows-policing.html
24. Levine H. Marijuana arrests: Gateway into the Criminal Justice System, The Brooklyn Rail, October 3, 2011, available at: https://brooklynrail.org/2011/10/local/marijuana- arrests-gateway-into-the-criminal-justice-system
25. Zhao J. S., Lai Y., Ren L., Lawton B. The impact of race/ethnicity and quality-of-life policing on public attitudes toward racially biased policing and traffic stops, Crime & Delinquency, 2015, No. 61 (3), pp. 350–374. DOI: 10.1177/0011128711398028
26. Elliot L., Golub A., Dunlap E. Off the street and into “the cut”: Deterrence and displacement in NYC’s quality of life marijuana policing, International Journal of Drug Policy, 2012, No. 23 (3), pp. 210–219. DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2011.08.006
27. Fisher W. H., Simon L., Roy-Bujnowski K., Grudzinskas A., Wolff N., Crockett E., Banks S. Risk of arrest among public mental health services recipients and the general public, Psychiatric Services, 2011, No. 62 (1), pp. 67–72. DOI: 10.1176/ps.62.1.pss6201_0067
28. Chauhan P., Fera A. G., Welsh M. B., Balazon E., Misshula E. Trends in misdemeanor arrest rates in New York. 2014, October. Retrieved from Data Collaborative for Justice website: http://datacollaborativeforjustice.org/wp- content/uploads/2016/08/Misdemeanor-Report.pdf
29. Patten M., Bond E., Low-Weiner C., Hood Q. O., Lu O., Tomascak S., Chauhan, P. Trends in marijuana enforcement in New York State, 1990–2017. 2019. Retrieved from Data Collaborative for Justice website: https://datacollaborativeforjustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/MARIJUANA.REPORT.FINAL_.NEW_.APPENDIX.pdf
30. Chauhan, P., Tomascak, S., Cuevas, C., Hood, Q. O., & Lu, O. (2018, February). Trends in Arrests for Misdemeanor Charges in New York City, 19932016. Retrieved from Misdemeanor Justice Project website: http://misdemeanorjustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/2018_01_24_MJP.Char ges.FINAL_.pdf
31. Helfgott J. B., Parkin W. S., Fisher C., Morgan L., Kaur S. Tends in misdemeanor arrests, referrals, and charges in Seattle, 2018. Retrieved from Data Collaborative for Justice website: https://datacollaborativeforjustice.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/Trends_in_Misdemeanors_Seattle.pdf
32. Evans S. A., Salekin K. I. Involuntary civil commitment: Communicating with the court regarding “danger to other”, Law and Human Behavior, 2014, No. 38 (4), pp. 325–336. DOI: 10.1037/lhb0000068
33. Stone D. Dangerous minds: Myths and realities behind the violent behavior of the mentally ill, public perceptions, and the judicial response through involuntary civil commitment, Law & Psychology Review, 2018, No. 42, pp. 59–83.
34. Grande A. Man arrested for trying to throw woman off Seattle overpass. 2019, March 19. Retrieved from: https://www.kiro7.com/news/local/man-arrested-for-trying-to-throw-woman-off-seattle-overpass/931766654
35. MYNorthwest Staff, Seattle suspect has long history with police, state mental health, March 21, 2019. Retrieved from: https://mynorthwest.com/1315319/seattle-jonathan-james-wilson-history/?
36. Washington State Legislature (n. d.). Revised code of Washington 71.05. Retrieved from: https://app.leg.wa.gov/rcw/default.aspx?cite=71.05
37. Feely M. M. The process is punishment: Handling cases in a lower criminal court, New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation, 1992.
38. Nelson J. A dollar or a day: Sentencing misdemeanants in New York State, Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 1994, No. 31 (2), pp. 183–201. DOI: 10.1177/0022427894031002006
39. Munoz E. A., Freng A. B. Age, racial/ethnic minority status, gender and misdemeanor sentencing, Journal of Ethnicity and Criminal Justice, 2007, No. 5 (4), pp. 29–57. DOI: 10.1300/J222v05n04_02
40. Berdejo C. Criminalizing race: Racial disparities in plea-bargaining, Boston College Law Review, 2018, No. 59(4), pp. 1188–1249.
41. Brennan P. K. Sentencing female misdemeanants: An examination of the direct and indirect effects of race/ethnicity, Justice Quarterly, 2006, No. 25 (1), pp. 60–95. DOI: 10.1080/07418820600552477
42. Munoz E. A., McMorris B. J. Misdemeanor sentencing decisions: The cost of being Native American, The Justice Professional, 2002, No. 15 (3), pp. 239–259. DOI: 10.1080/08884310215664
43. Munoz E. A., Sapp S. G. Racial/ethnic misdemeanor sentencing disparities: Additional evidence for contextual discrimination, Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 2003, No. 1 (2), pp. 27–46. DOI: 10.1300/J222v01n02_02
44. Lindsay P. Seattle Municipal Court, 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.seattle.gov/Documents/Departments/Council/Committees/CentralStaff/TopicPapers/6b.-Seattle-Municipal-Court.pdf
45. Chappel D. (Ed.) Policing and the mentally ill: International perspectives, Boca Raton, FL, CRC Press, 2013.
46. Compton M. T., Bahora M., Watson A. C., Oliva J. R. A comprehensive review of extant research on Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) programs, Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law Online, 2008, No. 36 (1), pp. 47–55.
47. Compton M. T., Esterberg M. L., McGee R., Kotwicki R. J., Oliva J. R. Brief reports: Crisis intervention team training: Changes in knowledge, attitudes, and stigma related to schizophrenia, Psychiatric Services, 2006, No. 57 (8), pp. 1199–1202. DOI: 10.1176/ps.2006.57.8.1199
48. Compton M. T., Neubert B. N. D., Broussard B., McGriff J. A., Morgan R., Oliva J. R. Use of force preferences and perceivedeffectiveness of actions among Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) police officers and non-CIT officers in an escalating psychiatriccrisis involving a subject with schizophrenia, Schizophrenia bulletin, 2009, No. 37 (4), pp. 737–745. DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbp146
49. Davidson M. L. A criminal justice system-wide response to mental illness: Evaluating the effectiveness of the Memphis crisis intervention team training curriculum among law enforcement and correctional officers, Criminal Justice Policy Review, 2016, No. 27 (1), pp. 46–75. DOI: 10.1177/0887403414554997
50. Dupont R., Cochran S., Pillsbury S. Crisis Intervention Team core elements. The University of Memphis School of Urban Affairs and Public Policy, Dept. of Criminology and Criminal Justice, CIT Center, 2007. Retrieved from: http://cit. memphis.edu/CoreElements.pdf
51. Lurigio A. J., Watson A. The police and people with mental illness: New approaches to a longstanding problem, Journal of Police Crisis Negotiations, 2010, No. 10 (1/2), pp. 3–14. DOI: 10.1080/15332586.2010.481895
52. Reuland M., Schwarzfeld M., Draper L. Law enforcement responses to people with mental illnesses: A guide to researchinformed policy and practice, 2009. Retrieved from Council of State Governments Justice Center website: https://csgjusticecenter.org/wp- content/uploads/2012/12/le-research.pdf
53. Watson A. C., Compton M. T., Draine J. N. The crisis intervention team (CIT) model: An evidence-based policing practice? Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 2017, No. 35 (5–6), pp. 431–441. DOI: 10.1002/bsl.2304
54. Treatment Advocacy Center. (n.d.). People with untreated mental illness 16 times more likely to be killed by law enforcement. Retrieved from: https://www.treatmentadvocacycenter.org/key- issues/criminalization-of-mental-illness/2976-people-with-untreatedmental-illness-16-times-more-likely-to-be-killed-by-law-enforcement
55. McKean J., Hendricks J. E. The role of crisis intervention in the police response to domestic disturbances, Criminal Justice Policy Review, 1997, No. 8 (2/3), pp. 269–294, available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/088740349700800207
56. Teller J. L., Munetz M. R., Gil K. M., Ritter C. Crisis intervention team training for police officers responding to mental disturbance calls, Psychiatric Services, 2006, No. 57 (2), pp. 232–237. DOI: 10.1176/appi.ps.57.2.232
57. Watson A. C., Fulambarker A. J. The crisis intervention team model of police response to mental health crises: A primer for mental health practitioners, Best Practices in Mental Health, 2012, No. 8 (2), pp. 71–81.
58. United States Department of Justice, Investigation of the Seattle Police Department, 2011. Retrieved from: https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/crt/legacy/2011/12/16/spd_findletter_12-16-11.pdf
59. Lightfoot J. Seattle police: What they're doing right with troubled people, 2012, January 12. Retrieved from: https://crosscut.com/2012/01/seattle-police-what-theyre-doing-right-with-troubl
60. Neidhart E. Managing those in crisis: A yearlong analysis of incidents handled by the Seattle Police Department (Unpublished master’s thesis), Seattle University, Seattle, WA, 2008.
61. Neidhart E. Crisis intervention and police interactions with individuals with mental illness. In J. B. Helfgott (Ed.), Criminal psychology, Vol. 3, pp. 139–168. Santa Barbara, CA: Praeger, 2013.
62. Helfgott J. B., Hickman M. J., Labossiere A. A descriptive evaluation of the Seattle Police Department’s Crisis response team officer/mental health professional partnership pilot program, International Journal of Law and Psychiatry, 2016, No. 44 (1), pp. 109–122. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijlp.2015.08.038.
63. Seattle Police Manual Crisis Intervention Policy, July 16, 2018. Retrieved from: https://www.seattle.gov/police-manual/title-16-patrol-operations/16110-crisis-intervention
64. United States Department of Justice. Federal monitor finds Seattle Police Department’s crisis intervention efforts in initial compliance with consent decree requirements, 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.justice.gov/opa/pr/federa+l-monitor-finds-seattlepolice-department-s-crisis-intervention-efforts-initial
65. Miletich S., Carter M. Seattle police found in ‘full and effective compliance’ with court-ordered reforms, The Seattle Times, January 10, 2018. Retrieved from: https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/crime/seattle-police-found-in-full-and-effectivecompliance-with-court-ordered-reforms/
66. Lee J. Seattle police have ‘embraced’ crisis-intervention training, report says. The Seattle Times, August 17, 2016. Retrieved from: https://www.seattletimes.com/seattle-news/crime/seattle-police-have-embraced-crisis-intervention-training-report-says/
67. Seattle Police Department. Crisis intervention program report, 2018. Retrieved from: https://www.seattle.gov/Documents/Departments/Police/Publications/Crisis-Intervention- Outcome-Report-101818.pdf
68. Lum C., Vovak H. Variability in the use of misdemeanor arrests by police agencies from 1990 to 2013: An application of group-based trajectory modeling, Criminal Justice Policy Review, 2018, No. 29 (6–7), pp. 536–560. DOI: 10.1177/0887403417731598
69. Kondo L. L. Advocacy of the establishment of mental health specialty courts in the provision of therapeutic justice for mentally ill offenders, Seattle University Law Review, 2000, No. 24 (2), pp. 373–465.
70. Gutierrez S. Seattle's Mental Health Court celebrates 10 years, Seattle PostIntelligencer, 2009, June 16. Retrieved from:
https://www.seattlepi.com/local/article/Seattle-s-Mental-Health-Court-celebrates-10-years-1304568.php
71. Collins S. E., Nytrop K., Clifasefi S. L., Lonczak H. S., Daugaard L. Seattle Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) Program, Police Chief, 2016, No. 83 (8), pp. 36–40. DOI: 10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2017.05.008
72. Clifasefi S. L., Lonczak H. S., Collins S. E. Seattle’s Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD) program: Within-subjects changes on housing, employment, and income/benefits outcomes and associations with recidivism, Crime & Delinquency, 2017, No. 63 (4), pp. 429–444.
73. Collins, S. E., Lonczak, H. S., & Clifasefi, S. L. Seattle’s Law Enforcement Assisted Diversion (LEAD): Program effects on recidivism outcomes, Evaluation and Program Planning, 2017, No. 64 (1), pp. 49–56.
74. King County (n.d.). Diversion from legal services: LINC prosecutorial diversion program, Retrieved from: https://www.kingcounty.gov/depts/community-human-services/mental-health-substance-abuse/diversion-reentry-services/legalcompetency.aspx
75. Case B., Steadman H. J., Dupuis S. A., Morris L. S. Who succeeds in jail diversion programs for persons with mental illness? A MultiSite Study, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 2009, No. 27 (5), pp. 661–674. DOI: 10.1002/bsl.883.
76. Steadman H. J., Naples M. Assessing the effectiveness of jail diversion programs for persons with serious mental illness and co-occurring substance use disorders, Behavioral Sciences and the Law, 2005, No. 23 (2), pp. 163–170. DOI: 10.1002/bsl.640
77. Helfgott J. B., Parkin W. S., Danner J. Goodwin G., Bray B., Schuur K., Chandler J., Thomas M., Ro S., Kachurina Z., Yap C., Singer J. Seattle Police Department’s Micro Community Policing Plans: Implementation Evaluation. Seattle, WA: Seattle University, 2018. Retrieved from: https://www.seattle.gov/Documents/Departments/Police/Reports/2018_Seattle_PD_MicroCommu nities.pdf
78. Pooler T. Mental health needs of misdemeanor defendants: An impact evaluation of the Bronx Mental Health Initiative, 2015. Retrieved from Center for Court Innovation website: http://www.courtinnovation.org/sites/default/files/documents/TargetingTheMentalHealthNeedsOf MisdemeanorDefendants.pdf
79. Steffensmeier D., Harris C. T., Painter-Davis N. Gender and arrests for larceny, fraud, forgery, and embezzlement: Conventional or occupational property crime offenders?, Journal of Criminal Justice, 2015, No. 43 (3), pp. 205–217. DOI: 10.1016/jjcrimjus.2015.03.004
80. Taxman F. S., Cropsey K. L. Women and the criminal justice system: Improving outcomes through criminal justice and non-criminal justice responses, Women and Criminal Justice, 2007, No. 17 (2/3), pp. 5–26. DOI: 10.1300/J012v17n02_02
81. Allen H. Justice unbalanced: Gender, psychiatry and judicial decisions, Philadelphia, PA, Open University Press, 1987.
82. Bohrman C., Wilson A. B., Watson A., Draine J. How police officers assess for mental illnesses. Victims & Offenders: An International Journal of Evidence-based Research, Policy, and Practice, 2018, No. 15 (8), pp. 1077–1092. DOI: 10.1080/15564886.2018.1527737
83. Gunnison E., Bernat F. P., Goodstein L. Women, crime, and justice: Balancing the scales, Hoboken, NJ, Wiley-Blackwell, 2016.
84. Caudy M. S., Tillyer M. S., Tillyer R. Jail vs probation: A gender-specific test of differential effectiveness and moderators of sanction effects, Criminal Justice and Behavior, 2018, No. 45 (7), pp. 949–968. DOI: 10.1177/0093854818766375
85. Fogg S., Ney B. Building gender informed practices at the pretrial stage: Lessons learned about implementing the Inventory of Needs (ION) in Dutchess County, New York, 2016. Retrieved from National Resource Center on Justice Involved Women website: https://cjinvolvedwomen.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/Pretrial-Monograph-Final-Designed.pdf
86. Kubiak S. P., Arfken C. L. Beyond gender responsivity: Considering differences among community dwelling women involved in the criminal justice system and those involved in treatment, Women & Criminal Justice, 2007, No. 17 (2), pp. 75–94.
87. Salisbury E. J. Program integrity and the principles of gender-responsive interventions: Assessing the context for sustainable change, Criminology & Public Policy, 2015, No. 14 (2), pp. 329–338. DOI: 10.1111/1745-9133.12131
88. Loveland D., Boyle M. Intensive case management as a jail diversion program for people with a serious mental illness: A review of the literature, International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 2007, No. 51 (2), pp. 130–150, available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X06287645
89. Sirotich F. The criminal justice outcomes of jail diversion programs for persons with mental illness: A review of the evidence, The Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law, 2009, No. 37(4), pp. 461–472.
90. Steadman H., Cocozza J., Veysey B. Comparing outcomes for diverted and nondiverted jail detainees with mental illnesses, Law and Human Behavior, 1999, No. 23 (6), pp. 615–627. DOI: 10.1023/A:102238520
91. Swaminath R. S., Mendonca J. D., Vidal C., Chapman P. Experiments in change: Pretrial diversion of offenders with mental illness, The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 2002, No. 47 (5), pp. 450–458, available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370204700506
92. Swanson J. W., Borum R., Swartz M. S., Hiday V. A., Ryan Wagner H., Burns B. J. Can involuntary outpatient commitment reduce arrests among persons with severe mental illness? Criminal Justice and Behavior, 2001, No. 28 (2), pp. 156–189, available at: https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854801028002002
93. Hiday V., Wales H., Ray B. Effectiveness of a short-term mental health court: Criminal recidivism one year postexit, Law and Human Behavior, 2013, No. 37 (6), pp. 401–411.
94. Moore M. E., Hiday V. Mental health court outcomes: A comparison of re-arrest and re-arrest severity between mental health court and traditional court participants, Law and Human Behavior, 2006, No. 30 (6), pp. 659–674. DOI: 10.1007/s10979- 006-9061-9
95. Helfgott J. B., Parkin W. S., Fisher Ch. Crisis-flagged Misdemeanors in Seattle: Arrests, Referrals, Charges, and Case Dispositions, Criminology, Criminal Justice, Law & Society, 2019, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 59–85.
Citation :
Helfgott J. B., Parkin W. S., Fisher Ch. Crisis-flagged Misdemeanors in Seattle: Arrests, Referrals, Charges, and Case Dispositions, Actual Problems of Economics and Law, 2020, Vol. 14, No. 2, pp. 352–380. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.21202/1993-047X.14.2020.2.352-380
Type of article : The scientific article
Date of receipt of the article :
02.03.2020
Date of adoption of the print :
12.05.2020
Date of online accommodation :
25.06.2020
|
Search
by keywords, authors:
Useful references
|
